Summary 

Leadership research often focuses on demonstrating the best way to lead, categorising and measuring ‘new’ leadership styles in different situations, countries, or industries. But have we made things unnecessarily complex for managers? Our study, published in the Journal of Management Studies, reveals that 12 of the most popular leadership styles overlap significantly, capturing the same core dynamics. By shifting focus from specific styles to universal behaviors and the leader-follower relationship, we can simplify leadership theory and enhance its real-world application. 

Why Leadership Research Needs a Rethink? 

Leadership influences nearly every facet of organisational life, from employee engagement to team performance. Over the past 50 years, researchers have introduced countless leadership styles—transformational, ethical, authentic, servant, and more—each claiming unique benefits. This proliferation of styles has been treated as progress, offering practitioners a variety of tools to navigate complex workplace challenges. 

But is this variety meaningful? Or are we merely repackaging the same core concepts under different names? Despite their popularity, most leadership measures have only been systematically examined for their unique contributions against one or two other leadership measures – so they might be slightly different to one style but be similar to others. Our research tested these assumptions by analysing 12 of the most widely used leadership measures, spanning seven samples, five countries, and over 4,000 participants. 

What We Found: The Overlap of Leadership Measures 

Using a robust statistical approach called bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling (B-ESEM), we discovered that these 12 leadership measures share substantial variance. This shared variance is not just a statistical artifact; it represents something quite fundamental: the affect followers have for their leader (i.e., the general quality of the leader-follower relationship). 

In simpler terms, many leadership measures reflect whether followers perceive their leader positively or negatively, rather than capturing distinct leadership behaviours. For instance, measures of transformational, servant, and ethical leadership often overlap because they all reflect desirable qualities in leaders—qualities that followers naturally associate with effective leadership. Even when accounting for shared variance, most leadership measures struggle to show unique associations with outcomes like job satisfaction, organisational citizenship behavior, innovation, or team performance. 

Why This Matters: A Case for Simplification 

These findings have significant implications for how we study, teach, and practice leadership. 

For Researchers 

First, the tendency to introduce new styles has created a fragmented and often redundant literature. Our findings call for a more unified approach—one that focuses on taxonomic leadership behaviour categories (e.g., task-oriented, relations-oriented, and change-oriented behaviours). These categories provide a simpler, more parsimonious framework for understanding leadership, without sacrificing nuance or depth. 

Second, the overlap in leadership measures suggests that future research should explicitly separate follower perceptions (e.g., how much they like their leader) from objective assessments of leader behaviors. Doing so could uncover deeper insights into what truly drives leadership effectiveness. 

Third, researchers must move beyond controlling for follower affect and instead model it as an integral and influential component of the leadership process. Understanding how follower affect shapes and is shaped by leadership behaviours will provide richer insights into the complexities of leader-follower dynamics. 

For Practitioners 

For organisations: 

Good leadership does not mean chasing the latest trend. Instead, focus on building on the leadership behaviors that align with your organisation’s values and mission. Strengthening these core behaviors creates leaders who are effective and consistent with strategic goals, cutting through the noise to deliver real impact. 

For leaders:  

Being a great leader doesn’t have to be complicated. The key lies in building strong relationships with followers. When people feel positive about their leader, they are more likely to deliver better outcomes, creating a ripple effect across teams and the entire organisation. 

For leadership consultants: 

Instead of constantly chasing new competencies, focus on helping leaders master a small set of core skills that truly matter. With creative and effective training approaches, leaders can be empowered to excel in ways that drive success. 

Who Should Read This Study? 

If you are a leadership researcher, our findings challenge you to question the distinctiveness of existing measures and consider the value of a more integrated approach. If you are a practitioner, our research encourages you to focus less on choosing the “right” leadership style and more on building strong, trust-based relationships with your teams. 

A Final Thought 

Leadership is, at its core, about relationships. By moving away from fragmented measures and focusing on the shared elements that define effective leadership, we can create a more coherent and impactful field of study.